1 The Contextual Meaning of ‫ כשפה‬, məḵaššēfâ ‘witch’ in Exodus 22:17 by Paul Cookey (PhD Candidate, TCNN) Presented to Jos-Bukuru Theological Society, TCNN, 10-10-13 1 Preliminaries 1.1 Abstract The aim of this paper is to discover the meaning of the term in Exodus 22:17.1 In this paper I address the issue of the meaning of against the general traditional and African interpretation of the term, and particularly the understanding of the term in Akwa Ibom State of σigeria through the King James Version’s translation from the δatin of the term as meaning ‘social destruction to life and property of people through mysterious powers inherent in the subject’.2 This paper argues that the term is a representational term used by the redactor of Exodus 22:17 to reflect the semantic range of idolatrous practices condemned by Yahweh among his chosen people and cited elsewhere in the Old Testament which were already prevalent among them. At the root of the term is the practice of necromancy, divination and magic. This understanding is made clear when the term is understood as synonymous3 with other Old Testament related terms used within their context. This paper is not a discussion on ‘witchcraft’ but rather seeks to clarify the apparent ambiguity in the term as used in Exodus 22:17, especially, as translated ‘witch’ within the receptor contexts and used to justify the killing of suspected ‘witches’ even in our contemporary society. 1.2 Methodology I engage in analysing and comparing the term to establish its semantic range within the context of Exodus 22:17 and against the τld Testament’s historical and cultural context. Hence the theoretical framework governing this presentation is comparative and analytical approach using the literary critical methodology.4 However, it is necessary to note that the related terms referred to and discussed in this study can be roughly categorized under fields which practice various forms of magic5 and divination,6 but unfortunately there are not enough data to decisively establish semantic boundaries for these forms. 1 Most English versions, if not all, have this as Exodus 22:18. The present researcher prefers using the BHS verse numbering and shall consistently use it except when making allusions to or direct quotations from other versions or works referred to. 2 This is not peculiar to Africa alone or Akwa Ibom State, but it is a universal phenomenon and practice. 3 This is what Silva Moises calls ‘contiguous relations’ or ‘improper synonyms’ Moises Silva, Biblical Words and Their Meaning: An Introduction to Lexical Semantics, Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1983, see also Grant Osborne, The Hermeneutical Spiral: A Comprehensive Introduction to Biblical Interpretation, Downers Grove, Illinois: Inter Varsity Press, 1991, p. 85. 4 Tremper Longman III, Literary Approaches to Biblical Interpretation: Foundations of Contemporary Interpretation, Volume 3, Grand Rapids, Michigan, Academie Books, Zondervan Publishing House, Leicester, England: Apollos, 1987. 5 Many dictionaries and reference books classify “sorcery” and “witchcraft” under magic in their entry. 6 G André, ‘ – kashaph,’ in Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, Volume VII, edited by G Johannes Botterweck, et al and translated by David E. Green, Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1984, p. 365; André categorizes them into three groups: magic, divination and astrology. 2 1.3 Introduction The traditional translation of Exodus 22:17, ‘Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live’ (KJV) is often quoted to justify the killing of suspected and accused ‘witches’ (including children).7 In view of this, we shall consider the concept behind the use of the Hebrew word within the literary context under consideration and generally in the Old Testament. In other words, this study is an examination of the meaning of the term in the present literary form of Exodus 22:17. In common speech, witchcraft is the believed use of supernatural means for harmful, evil ends. Witchcraft as the practice of weird, aberrant persons believed to possess an inherent, mysterious power may be distinguished from sorcery as the work of ordinary persons using commonly understandable techniques. In some societies witchcraft, often called white witchcraft, is for socially beneficial aims such as healing the sick and protecting property.8 This paper equally examines whether this understanding was shared or practiced in Israel by studying the word within the general context of the Old Testament, the Torah and particularly Exodus 22:17. 1.4 Definition of terms Osborne notes that word studies has become the most popular aspect of exegesis.9 ‘Without a context in a grammatical sentence, a word is meaningless.’10 Thus the meaning of a concept involves not only syntax (that is, how words relate to each other within sentence), but also the historical-cultural background behind the statements.11 2 Word Study First of all let us consider the lexical meaning(s) of the word . occurs in the Hebrew sentence, (noun + negative + verb) and translated by the King James Version as ‘Thou shall not suffer the witch to live.’12 The term is here considered outside its grammatical and syntactical context. 2.1 Morphology The word comes from the root word , and the cognate words like the verb form means ‘to mutter magical words or incantations, ‘to practice sorcery,’13 ‘to practice magic.’14 is a participial feminine singular in the piel stem. This feminine form occurs only here in Exodus 22:17.15 The root verbal term also signifies 'to mutter', and consequently 'to mutter 7 This happened in the 16th and 17th centuries in Europe and is presently happening in different parts of the world, mostly in Africa and particularly in different parts of Akwa Ibom State of Nigeria. 8 ‘Witchcraft 19:895’, in New Encyclopedia Britannica, (15th edition), (no date), p. 716. 9 Grant R. Osborne, The Hermeneutical Spiral: A Comprehensive Introduction to Biblical Interpretation, Downers Grove, Illinois: Inter Varsity Press, 1991, p. 64. 10 Osborne, The Hermeneutical Spiral, p. 64. 11 See Osborne, p. 64 – 65. 12 Italics is mine for emphasis. 13 Terry A. Armstrong, Douglas L. Busby, and Cyril F. Carr, A Reader’s Hebrew – English Lexicon of the Old Testament (Four Volumes in One), Grand Rapids, Michigan: Regency Reference Library, Zondervan Publishing House, 1989, p. 41. 14 Todd S. Beall, William A. Banks, Colin Smith, Old Testament Parsing Guide (revised and updated edition), (Nashville, Tennessee: B&H Academic, 2000), p. 68; See Feyerabend, Karl, Langenscheidt Pocket Hebrew Dictionary (Hebrew – English), Germany: Langenscheidt (no date), p. 152. 15 Beall, Banks, Smith, Old Testament Parsing Guide (revised and updated edition), p. 68; Francis Brown, S. R. Driver, and Charles A. Briggs, The New Brown – Driver – Briggs – Gesenius Hebrew and English Lexicon 3 charms' whilst cutting up herbs or drugs in order to produce a magic brew, a process which may just as well refer to healing portions as well as to harmful concoctions. Some lexicons note that is ‘probably herbs shredded into a magic brew.’16 It has been strongly contended that the Hebrew feminine term used in the full text of Exodus 22:17 and usually translated 'sorceress', means either a mixer of drugs or a cutter up of poisons.17 In terms of mood, tense and gender, it can also quite simply and effectively be translated 'a woman practising magic,' The masculine forms ‫ ש‬and have been variously translated as ‘magician, sorcerer, incantation, sorcery’18 enchanter, witchcraft, wizard, soothsayer, diviner, wonder worker, fortune teller, or spell caster.19 The Septuagint translation of is φα α ου from φα α υ or φα α ο , masculine, plural accusative (direct object) meaning ‘sorcerers, sorceries, one who uses drugs either for sorcery or magic practices; and the Latin (Vulgate) translates it as maleficos which the King James Version translates as ‘witch.’ 2.2 Other References The Pharaoh of the exodus had those who practiced ‫ ש‬variety of the occult in his entourage of advisers (Exod 7:11). They are grouped with the ‘wise men’ and ‘magicians.’20 In Deuteronomy 18:10 it is used once only in the participle (singular) as substantive masculine .21 Another occurrence of the participle (plural) is in Daniel 2:2 where King Nebuchadnezzar commanded his ‫ ש‬along with his ‘magicians,’ ‫‘ ש‬enchanters’ and ‫‘ כשד‬Chaldeans’ to tell and interpret his dream. Malachi saw these ‫ ש‬being judged in the end along with adulterers, liars, and oppressors of widows, orphans, and foreigners (Mal 3:5). Among the sins of King Manasseh was (2 Chron 33:6). This is the only occurrence of the finite verb form, ‫ ש‬. This is a verb in the piel stem and it is demonstrative, meaning ‘practice sorcery.’22 ‫ ש‬another masculine noun form occurs six times in the Old Testament, and always in the plural form ‫‘ כש‬sorceries’ or ‘incantations’ (2 Kgs 9:22; Isa 47:9, 12; Mic 5:12 [Hebrew verse 11]; Nah 3:4 twice).23 It is used in two ways: In Micah 5:11 it is used literally of (with an appendix containing the Biblical Aramaic), Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1979, p. 506; Armstrong, Busby and Carr, p. 41 16 See BDB, 1979, p. 506; R. Laird Harris, Archer, Gleason L., Jr., & Waltke, Bruce K. (eds.), Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament, Volume 1, Chicago: Moody Press, p. 458; cf. Cleon L. Rogers Jr., & Cleon L. Rogers III, The New Linguistic and Exegetical Key to the Greek New Testament, (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1998), p. 431, 649. 17 Donald J. Bretherton, "An invitation to murder? A re-interpretation of Exodus 22:18 'you shall not suffer a witch to live'." Expository Times 116, no. 5 (February 1, 2005): 145-1η2. This may be related to the root ‘to cut off, out, up’ and literally ‘to cut oneself’ (cf. 1 Kgs 1κμ2κ) see BDB, The σew Brown – Driver – Briggs – Gesenius Hebrew and English Lexicon (with an appendix containing the Biblical Aramaic),. 18 Karl Feverabend, ibid. (no date), p. 152; William L. Holladay, (ed.), A Concise Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament, Grand Rapids, Michigan: E. J. Brill and Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1988, p. 166. 19 Harris, R. Laird, Archer, Gleason L., Jr., & Waltke, Bruce K. (eds.), Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament, Volume 1, p. 458. 20 I consider these ones to be synonymous with ‫ כשפי‬. 21 (following , , , and followed by , , and ). 22 Piel perfect 3rd person masculine singular; was a form of mantic practice identified with foreign paganism (Deut 1κμ12ffν 2 Kgs λμ22), and it was a recurrent threat to Israel’s worship of Yahweh. 22 It appears from the earliest to the latest period (Exod 7:11; Jer 27:9; 2 Chron 33:6; cf. in Ezek 13:9). 23 R. Laird Harris, Archer, Gleason L., Jr., & Waltke, Bruce K. (eds.), Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament, Volume 1, Chicago: Moody Press, p. 458. 4 Israel.24 And in Isaiah 47:9, 12 it is used with suffix of Babylon.25 Secondly, it is used figuratively of seductive and corrupting influences of Jezebel in 2 Kings 9:22 ( ‫כש‬,‘her sorceries’ and ּ her ‘harlotries’); also in Nahum 3:4 the word is used in the plural ‘her sorceries’ along with the word ‘her harlotries’ of Nineveh personified as harlot.26 In summary, the word study here shows the form and cognates of the term as variously translated as, ‘sorceress, magician, a woman who practices sorcery or magic or necromancy, or divination, witch,27 giving insight into the potential meanings inferred from the word . But the issue before us is the contextual meaning has in Exodus 22:17. 3 The Literary Form and Context of Exodus 22:17 Exodus 22:17 belongs to the section known as the Covenant Code within the context of the giving of the Ten Commandments and the constitution of Israel as a nation under Yahweh (Exod 20 – 24). The section of the Covenant Code is generally divided into two major groups as follows: (a) 21:2 – 22:20 – civil and criminal laws; (b) 20:23 – 26; 22:21 – 23:19 – miscellaneous admonitions concerning social morality, and religious and cultic regulations. The first division is generally well unified and systematically arranged. The second is quite varied in its contents, and is not arranged systematically.28 It is the unanimous consensus of modern critical and evangelical scholarship that the section of the Book of the Covenant is a collection of varied materials put together and only unified under the assigned title without any specific unit.29 Durham comments as follows: That the collection expanded with the passage of time and with the emergence of new contexts of need is suggested by the range of application of the laws contained in it, as also by its somewhat layered and often arbitrary organization. The many attempts to find unifying motifs in it or a logical or a theological sequence, have been generally unconvincing.30 In Brevard Childs’ opinion, the fusion of the two halves of the Book of the Covenant occurred at the literary stage. ‘The mishpatim were joined to the cultic laws which already had received a place within the Sinai narrative.’31 He says that it is highly likely that the same redactor rearranged his material and gave the altar law its present leading position.32 – ‘I will cut off sorceries from your hands’. , ‘In spite of your many sorceries; In spite of the great power of your spells’ (v. 9); – ‘Stand fast now in your spells; And in your many sorceries’ (v. 12) New American Standard Bible - Updated Edition, (NASU ); it is important to note the context here, especially, relating to influence by the use of the words ‘spells, astrologers, prophesy by star gazing, predictions by new moon’ – Isaiah 47:9, 12 – 13. 26 ‘All because of the many harlotries of the harlot, The Charming one, the mistress of sorceries, Who sells nations by her harlotries, And families by her sorceries.’ NASU – Updated Edition 27 The implication of the translation ‘witch’ is being considered in the section of this paper “the social implications of translating by the Latin maleficos and English word ‘witch.’” 28 Hyatt notes that it can be divided into several subdivisions (Hyatt, p. 219). 29 John I. Durham, Exodus: Word Biblical Commentary, Volume 1, Waco, Texas: Word Books Publishers, 1987, p. 315; Brevard S., Childs, The Book of Exodus: A Critical, Theological Commentary: Old Testament Library, Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1974, p. 458; Noel D. Osborn & Howard A. Hatton, A Handbook on Exodus, New York: United Bible Societies, 1999, p. 531. 30 Durham, 1987, p. 315. 31 Childs, p. 458. 32 However, Childs notes that without sufficient evidence it is idle to speculate on the shape of this material prior to its combination (Childs, p. 458). 24 25 μ 5 Scholars are agreed that the unifying factor lies in its theology and present redaction form which is not the work of one author or source as traditionally believed.33 Durham puts this point clearly as follows: The “Covenant Code” is held together not by a consistent literary form or style, not by the organization of a single compiler or a single historical setting, but by the theological assertions that these laws, as different as they are in form and application and origin, are all Yahweh’s, and so are all expected of the people who reckon themselves to be his.34 The first major section (Exod 21:1 - 22:16) is concerned with the casuistic laws but we shall concern ourselves with the second division where our text and term under consideration lie. The second major division (Exod 22:17 – 23:19) contains a miscellaneous group of admonitions concerning social morality, and regulations concerning religion and the cult. Within this group form-critics recognize another specific literary form which should properly be called ‘apodictic’. It is categorical and unconditional, like the Hebrew participial form, but it is in the second person (most often singular) and usually is a negative command or prohibition, expressed by the strong Hebrew negative . This is the form recognized in the Ten Commandments in chapter 20.35 Within the second major division Alfred Jepsen isolated a small group of religious and ethical prohibitions, which he thinks are native Israelite and very old, though their precise date cannot be determined.36 Each of these has a definite form: object of the verb + the negative + a single verb. Like our text of reference , each has only three words in Hebrew (though a little variation on this point can be observed).37 Albrecht Alt expressed the opinion that the apodictic law was native Israelite law, and that the casuistic law was borrowed from Canaanites.38 Subsequent studies have shown however, that the apodictic form conceived broadly is found in other literatures outside Israel; for example, in the Hittite treaties, in Egyptian and Mesopotamian wisdom literature, and sporadically even in the Near Eastern codes39 Given that is used in the apodictic literary genre, it is possible that it may be Semitic, but typically used in Israel to express outlawed practices. 40 G. André notes that the list of terms used in Deuteronomy 18:9 – 14 clearly reflects the situation of the late monarchy.41 It is therefore not out of place to conclude that there is a mixture of practices from the preMartin Noth, “Exodus, A Commentary”: Old Testament Library, Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1962, p. 18; Brevard S. Childs, The Book of Exodus: A Critical, Theological Commentary: Old Testament Library, Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1974, p. 440 – 496; John I. Durham., Exodus: Word Biblical Commentary, Volume 3, Waco, Texas: Word Books Publishers, 1987 p. 327; Donald E. Gowan, Theology in Exodus: Biblical Theology in Form of a Commentary, Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press, 1994 (See especially p. x – xi; 178 – 183); cf. ABD, Volume 2, D – G, 2008, Section H, p. 694 – 695. 34 Durham, Ibid., 1987, p. 318. 35 Some scholars think the form was originally always negative, cf. Hyatt, p. 221. 36 Alfred Jepsen, Untersuchungen zum Bundesbuch (Stuttgart: 1927) cited by Hyatt, p. 221. 37 Alfred Jepsen, cited by Hyatt, p. 221. 38 Alt, 1989, p. 109; see also Hyatt, p. 221; This however remains unsubstantiated and for a more considerable view on this see Durham, op. cit., Volume 1 (1987), p. 316 – 317. 39 Samuel Greengus, ‘Biblical and AσE δaw’ in Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary (ABD), Volume 4, K – N, (eds. David Freedman, et al, New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 2008, p. 242 - 256), Volume 4, K – N, 2008, p. 245; (cf. Hammurapi Code, 36, 38 – 40; Middle Assyrian Laws, A, 40, 57 – 59; B, 6). 40 Moshe Weinfeld, Deuteronomy and the Deuteronomic School, Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1972. 41 G. André, op. cit.; p. 364; see also G. von Rad, Deuteronomy, OTL (English translation, 1966). 33 6 monarchial and monarchial periods incorporated into this section of the Book of the Covenant given the continuous activities of scribal work during and after the period of the Monarchy, particularly on the section of the Torah.42 The redactor must have reflected the prohibition of practices that were outlawed in Israel by using the word to represent the whole range of magical practices cited elsewhere all over the Old Testament.43 However, my point is that this is the work of a redactor who used the word to represent not just sorcery but various forms of divination and magic especially practised by Israel’s neighbours and were prevalent within Israel before, during and after the period of the Monarchy.44 The subject matter of Exodus 22:17 within its own genre and context, nevertheless, gives it a consideration wider than the Pentateuch but into other Old Testament books which includes the Historical Books as well as the Prophetic Books. By this I mean that the issue of divination, sorcery, necromancy, magic, fortune-telling, soothsaying, spiritism, and the like are clear recurrent issues that the prophets rebuked and are found in the three sections of the Hebrew Scriptures .45 Thus, it is likely that the term as at the time of redaction had a wider semantic meaning than its denotative meaning. 4 Paradigmatic Study of ‫( כשפה‬Synonymity and Componential Analysis) This section demonstrates that there are other terms and patterns used in the Old Testament that reflect the Semitic and semantic range of . Different Bible translations are compared to demonstrate how these terms overlap in meaning with . Our concern here therefore is with the semantic field concept, not just the various meanings the term itself might have in different contexts but other terms that relate to it. Eugene A. Nida calls this ‘field semantics’ where ‘critical studies of meaning must be based primarily upon the 42 Ernst Wȕrthwein, The Text of the Old Testament, translated by Erroll F. Rhodes, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1979; Jon D. Levenson, The Hebrew Bible, The Old Testament, and Historical Criticism: Jews and Christians in Biblical Studies, Westminster/John Knox Press, Louisville, Kentucky, 1999; Ellis R. Brotzman, Old Testament Textual Criticism: A Practical Introduction, Baker Books: Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1994; Albrecht Alt, Essays on Old Testament History and Religion, translated by R. A. Wilson, (Sheffield: JOST Press, an imprint of Sheffield Academic Press Ltd, 1989); Walther Eichrodt, Theology of the Old Testament, Volume One, Old Testament Library, (translated by J. A. Baker), Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1961 43 I would settle for a period between the late Monarchy and the time of Ezra around the 5th century B. C. E. I think that it was actually during the time of Ezra that the canon of the Torah was set. 44 This is the consensus of virtually every serious modern scholarship on this section of the Book of the Covenant I have deliberately left out the Documentary Source hypothesis argument because modern literary critical scholarship has long questioned the highly speculative nature of the hypothesis. However, it may be necessary to note that traditionally this section of the Book of the Covenant has been assigned to J and E Sources. For scholars who propose JE Sources, see, Keil and Delitzsch Commentary on the Old Testament: New Updated Edition, Electronic Database, copyright © 1996 by Hendrickson Publishers, Inc. All rights reserved. Martin Noth,, Exodus, A Commentary: Old Testament Library, (Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1962); The New Jerome Biblical Commentary, (eds. Raymond E. Brown, et al), (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1990); for scholars who challenge this assignment particularly in respect to this section, see -, Charles M. Layman, (ed.) The Interpreter’s One Volume Commentary on the Bible: Introduction and Commentary for Each Book of the Bible Including the Apocrypha – with General Articles, Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1989; Brevard S. Childs, The Book of Exodus: A Critical, Theological Commentary: Old Testament Library, Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1974, p. 440 – 496; John I. Durham, Exodus: Word Biblical Commentary, Volume 1, Waco, Texas: Word Books Publishers, 1987; J. Philip Hyatt, Exodus: The New Century Bible Commentary, (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1971). 45 Ibid.; see also Noel D. Osborn & Howard A. Hatton, A Handbook on Exodus, New York: United Bible Societies, 1999, p. 531; Osborn and Hatton note that there are a number of places where the different literary traditions have been joined together in an uneven manner so that a literary “seam” has been formed, (see τsborn and Hatton, 1999, p. 2). 7 analysis of related meaning of different words not upon the different meanings of single words.’46 Table 1: shows the forms of in their OT references along with related terms that share 47 similar semantic ranges. Text 1 Exod 7:11 Exod 22:17 Deut 18:9-10 2 Kgs 9:22 2 Chron 33:6 Isa 47:9, 12 Jer 27:9,10 Dan 2:2 Mic 5:11 Nah 3:4 Mal 3:5 2 3 4 5 6 7 λ 8 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 10 - 11 12 - - - - - - The related Hebrew terms variously translated divination, enchantment, fortune-telling, sorcery, magic(ian), witch(craft), medium, familiar spirit, casting of spell, soothsaying, incantations, necromancy, etc. include: , ( ), , , , , , , , , , , and . These words not only share the same semantic field but are also found in other Semitic languages.48 In other words, they share approximately similar meanings within their Semitic cultural origin though they have different forms. It is not uncommon in the Old Testament to see words with overlapping meanings put together within the same context. In relation to our subject matter, Deuteronomy 18:9 – 14 has the most comprehensive list which I consider a deliberate stockpiling of synonymous terms that share the same semantic range within their immediate and general context. It must be noted that which is a cognate to is here listed along with other terms.49 4.1 Comparison of Versions There follows here a Comparative Table of various translations of the Hebrew words that express the abominable practices condemned by Yahweh in Deuteronomy 18: 9 – 1450 demonstrating the wide semantic range of meanings these words could express and how their meanings overlap. Eugene A. Nida, Signs, Sense and Translation, Pretoria, South Africa: Pretoria University, 1972, p. 85 – 86; see also Osborne 1991, p. 84. 47 The Table numbering indicates that there are about 12 other terms used in the OT that share overlapping semantic fields and could at times share the same meaning or “sense” but not necessarily the same “referent”ν The common ones are the ones listed in Deuteronomy 18:9 – 14 and I shall concentrate on these ones in the comparison; see also the terms and in G. André’s contribution to Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament Volume VII, 1984, p. 360 – 361; occurs 8 times and all in Daniel; is found in both Exodus and Daniel; is found in Daniel and generally refers to the Chaldeans who were known for “astrology” and “magic” – magia or Greek αγ α; Jeremiah 27:9 includes a list of false prophets and dreamers . (cf. Exod 7:11; Deut 18:9 – 14; Lev 19:31; 20:6,27; 2 Kgs 9:22; 17:15 – 17; 2 Chron 33:6; 1 Sam 28; Isa 8:19f; Jer 27:9,10; Dan 2:2; Mic 5:11; Nah 3:4). 48 This Semitic field covers Arabic, Akkadian, Assyrian, Egyptian, Ugaritic, etc. domains in the ancient Near East. 49 The list is first found here in Deuteronomy 18:9 – 11. Should Israel practice those abominable things they shall also be dispossessed of the land. 50 Deuteronomy 18:9 -14 has the most comprehensive, though not exhaustive, list of all the words used in the Old Testament to refer to every form of divination, necromancy, magic, or sorcery and the like and it may be an indication that the Deuteronomic redactor gathered these various related terms in his time to reflect the specific forms of practices abominable to Yahweh. 46 8 Vers. BHS LXX 1 2 α α υο α ο ζ 3 ο ο ο οω ο ο Vulgate filium filiam φα η α ο suum ducens per observat ignem aut qui somnia atque ariolos auguria sciscitatur NIV divination sorcery interprets omens NASU divination witchcraft interprets omens NLT fortunesorcery interpret telling omens sit maleficus ESV divination tells fortunes Messag divination e sorcery NKJV witchcraft soothsayer CJB diviner soothsayer NCV magic witchcraft NETB divination omen reader KJV observer times divination πα 7 υ ο incantator pythones consulat 8 αο divinos witchcraft cast spells medium spiritist sorcerer casts a medium spell witchcraft cast spells medium spiritist interprets omens fortunetelling sorcerer charmer medium wizard witchery casting spells holding séances - interprets omens enchanter sorcerer explain the meaning of signs soothsayer conjuring medium spells spell-caster consulter ghost mediums - control others with magic sorcerer casts spells conjures up spirits witch charmer consulter with familiar spirits sorcerer cast spells ask ghosts for help sorcerer charmer medium of enchanter GWT black magic fortune-teller witch RSV soothsayer augur divination πα ω παο 6 sorcerer psychic spiritist of consulter spirits - οπο π ωω ου ου quaeat moruis veritatem a consults the dead calls up the dead calls forth spirits of the dead necromancer channelling with the dead calls up the dead of necromancer talk with spirits of dead people practitioner of necromancer the occult wizard necromancer ask spirits for consult the help dead wizard necromancer Deuteronomy 18:9 - 14 offers the fullest catalogue of different forms of magic or sorcery. However, it remains a question how precisely the distinctions between soothsaying, omen, sorcery, etc. were understood in Israel. From Table 2 we can see that while ‘divination’ (NIV, NASU, ESV, Message, CJB, NETB, KJV RSV) is the ‘functional referent’ for ; it is also translated as ‘fortune telling’ (NLT), ‘witchcraft’ (NKJV), ‘magic’ (NCV), or ‘black magic’ (GWT). The term refers essentially to one who observes nature and makes predictions. He could be an ‘observer of times’ (KJV), or ‘fortune teller’ (ESV, GWT) or ‘soothsayer’ (NKJV, CJB, RSV) or ‘omen reader’ (NETB); but its semantic range covers ‘sorcery’ (NIV, NLT, Message) and ‘witchcraft’ (NASU, NCV). In Isaiah 57:3 the feminine form is translated 51 ‘sorceress.’ The term essentially refers to ‘omens’ (NIV, NASU, NLT, ESV, NKJV) or ‘one who explains signs’ (NCV); its semantic meaning covers ‘fortune teller’ (The message), ‘enchanter’ (CJB, KJV), ‘soothsayer’ (NETB), ‘augur’ (RSV) and ‘witch’ (GWT). Following the New American Standard Bible – Updated Edition (NASU), the statistics on the word form ‘sorcery’ is as follows: sorcerer – 1 time; sorceress – 2 times; sorceries – 6 times; sorcerers – 6 times; and sorcery – 3 times. This also gives us insight into the semantic range between the two terms (i.e. and ). 51 9 The is the male practitioner and is the female practitioner of ‘sorcery’ (NASU, ESV, NKJV, CJB, NETB, GWT, RSV), ‘witchcraft’ (NIV, Message, KJV) or ‘magic’ (NCV). The term refers particularly to ‘spell casters or charmers’ (NIV, NASU, NLT, ESV, Message, NKJV, CJB, NETB, KJV, GWT, RSV) and its semantic range extends to ‘medium’ (NCV). The term basically refers to a ‘medium’ (NIV, NASU, NLT, ESV, NKJV, RSV) or ‘one who conjures or consults familiar spirits or ghosts’ (CJB, NETB, KJV, GWT); Message translates it as ‘holding séances.’ G. André notes that designates either the ‘medium’ who consults the spirit or the ghost itself or ‘pit.’52 The term primarily refers to one who has knowledge of the occult and can invoke spirits by divination or incantation. It is translated as ‘spiritist’ (NIV, NASU, NKJV), ‘wizard’ (ESV, KJV, RSV), ‘consulter of spirits’ (CJB), one who ‘conjure up spirits’ (NETB), one who ‘ask spirits for help’ (GWT) and ‘psychic’ (NLT). which always appears in the context of necromancy takes its root from the Hebrew ‘to know,’ and characterizes the shades as ‘wise’53 and is usually translated as ‘spiritist’ or ‘wizard’.54 It refers to practitioners who possess special knowledge of the dead, and presumably other mantic arts.55 The expression refers literally to ‘one who inquires or seeks (information) from the dead by conjuring or invoking the spirit of the dead.’ This is technically called ‘necromancer’ and all the translations reflect this meaning. Thus while the redactor stockpiles words that overlap in meaning including there is a clear indication that necromancy is at the root of the reference through the practice of magic and divination.56 As we can see from the Bible Versions in the Table these words overlap in meaning but the terms cannot be interchanged. The semantic range of these words varies around the understanding medium, wizard, fortune teller, spiritist, necromancer, familiar spirit, magician, sorcerer, etc. From our comparison we could liken this type of synonymity to what See G. André, Ibid., cf. the Akkadian root aptu; and Ugaritic ‘eb; There are clear cases in extra-biblical sources where describes the digging of a ritual pit for the purpose of sacrificial offerings and to implore the spirits of the dead, a practice which Isaiah ridicules (Isa 29:14). Scholars are not agreed about the etymology of the word but it depicts ghosts, spirits of the dead or ancestors. 53 G. André, ‘ – kashaph,’ in Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, Volume VII, edited by G Johannes Botterweck, et al and translated by David E. Green, Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1984, p. 361. 54 Julye Badmead, ‘Medium, Wizard’ in Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible, edited by David Noel Freedman, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company: Grand Rapids, Michigan, Cambridge, 2000, p. 878. and are the only pair that appear together wherever they are cited in the Old Testament with the exception of 1 Chronicles 10:13 where appears alone. They are the only pair used in 1 Samuel 28 which is the only classic case we have of the practice of necromancy in the OT. 55 Ibid., 2000, p. 878; see also G André, ‘ – Kashaph,’ in Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, Volume VII, edited by G Johannes Botterweck, et al and translated by David E. Green, Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1984, p. 360 – 370. 56 This is so because the belief that the dead spirits possessed occult knowledge about the future was a prominent feature in ancient Near Eastern mythology and religion and Israel was equally influenced by this belief and was constantly rebuked by her prophets of this abomination. The dead spirits functioned as gods, dispensing oracles, and were often venerated. See Freedman, op. cit. p. 878; (cf. Isa 8:19; especially, NETB) 52 10 Moises Silva calls ‘contiguous relations’ or ‘improper synonymy’, that is, the terms share some similarity of reference but could never be interchanged.57 4.2 Ancient Near Eastern Background and Context: As in African religions,58 the religions of the ancient Near East were infused with magic and divination. Illness, famine and military defeats were frequently believed to have spiritual origins. In both Mesopotamia and Egypt skilled practitioners of magic were highly regarded.59 Moses and Aaron confronted these ‘wise men’ and ‘magicians’ and they are also grouped with ‘magicians or sorcerers’ when they sought to release the Hebrews from Egypt (Exod 7:11). Balaam was an esteemed ‘diviner’ whom Balak, king of Moab, attempted to use to curse Israel (Num. 22:4 – 7). These cultures approved certain forms of magic by designated practitioners but outlawed other practices, often labelled black magic or witchcraft or sorcery. Witches were viewed as being in league with demons and causing bad things to happen. For example, the Babylonian Code of Hammurabi (c. 1868 – 1728 B.C. E.) punished witchcraft with the death penalty.60 The Middle Assyrian Law Code 47 shows that unapproved use of magic was against the law and practitioners were to face death. Because of the severity of the consequences even those who accused others without substantiating their accusations were to face death. The approved magicians or exorcists would use magic to counteract these influences and act as diviners of useful information.61 57 Moises Silva, Biblical Words and Their Meaning: An Introduction to Lexical Semantics, Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1983, as cited in Osborne, 1991, p. 85; In Exodus ιμ11 among Pharaoh’s retinue were ‘wise men’ and (magicians) and they are also grouped with implying that the redactor may be using the words here synonymously. The context demonstrates this conclusion as later they are all called magicians without any distinction (Exod 7:22; 8:14, 15 [Eng. 18, 19]). In Jeremiah 27:9, it occurs once as ‘your sorcerers’. Here again the appearance of other terms like ‘your prophets’, ‘your diviners,’ ‘your dreamers,’ and ‘your soothsayers’ may be showing the semantic range of the terms as overlapping (cf. Ezek. 13:9 in context). In Daniel 2:2, King Nebuchadnezzar commanded his ‘sorcerers’ along with his ‘magicians’, ‘enchanters’ and ‘Chaldeans’. Again these terms are used synonymously as contiguous relations. 58 This, unfortunately, has been imported into the Church and subtly practiced as “Christianity.” 59 Cf. Genesis 41; Exodus 7ff; Isaiah; Ezekiel; Daniel 1 – 7; see also James M. Freeman, The New Manners and Customs of the Bible (rewritten and updated by Harold Chadwick), Alachua, Florida: Bridge-Logos, 1998, p. 174 – 176. 60 M. E. J. Richardson, Hammurabi’s Laws: Text, Translation and Glossary, London, New York: T & T Clark International, 200ζ (See p. ζ2, ζ3, 20η, 20θ)ν Richardson’s transliteration and translationμ summa awilum kispi eli awilim iddima la uktinsu, sa elisu kispu nadu ana id illak, Id isalliamma summa Id iksasassu, mubbirsu bissu itabbal. summa awilam suati Id utebbibassuma, istalmam sa Id isuliam, bit mubbirisu itabbal. (p. ζ2)ν “If a man has laid a charge of witchcraft against another man but cannot substantiate his guilt, the person against whom witchcraft has been alleged shall go to the River and jump into the River. And if the mighty river overpowers him, the one who laid the allegations against him shall take possession of his house. But if the River cleanses that man from his guilt he shall go away restored. The one who laid a charge of witchcraft against him shall be put to death; the one who jumped into the River shall take possession of the house of the one who made the allegation against him.” 61 James B. Pritchard (ed.) Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1955, p. 184 (Translated by Theophile J. Meek) ; “εiddle Assyrian δaw Code ζι”μ The Context of Scripture: Monumental Inscriptions from the Biblical World, edited by William W. Hallo, et al., B Leiden: Brill, 2002, p. 359: If either a man or a woman made up magical preparations and they were found in their possession, when they have prosecuted them (and) convicted them, they shall put the maker of the magical preparations to death. The man who saw the making of the magical preparations (or) heard (of it) from the mouth of an eyewitness who declared to him, “I myself have seen (it),” shall come forward as an ear witness (and) so declare to the king; if the eyewitness has denied to the king what he said, he shall declare in the presence of the Bull-god the son of shamash, “He did indeed say (it),” (and then) he is quit. As for the eyewitness who made a statement and then denied (it), the king shall interrogate him as he is able (and) investigate his past; when the exorcist is brought, he shall make the man speak and he himself shall say, “He (the king) will not absolve you from the oath which you were made to swear to the king and is son; it is in 11 G. André has pointed out cognate forms of in Mesopotamia Akkadian texts, Western Semites texts of Ras Shamra, Ugaritic text of Ras Ibn Hani 78/20 and the Phoenician text from Arslan Tash.62 In the Mesopotamia Akkadian texts kišpu (witchcraft) is distinguished from magic. Magic was recognized officially by kings and priests, and it was used to resist kišpu. Capital offense was prescribed for kišpu.63 The terms kaššāpu and kaššāptu translated as ‘sorcerer or witch’ express a practitioner who may be responsible for the evil that befalls a person. Thus expressions like kaššāptu takšipanni, ‘a witch has bewitched me’, lȗ kaššāpu lȗ kaššāptu, ‘. . . whoever has inflicted this upon me, whether sorcerer or witch’ demonstrate that the terms have negative connotations towards personal social harm against others.64 The person afflicted by kaššāpu or kaššāptu turns to the gods through an exorcist for deliverance. Exorcism takes place in the night. After incantation of a long litany, the afflicted person turns to the gods through the exorcist, praying that they will lift (paṭāru) the curses (mamitu). He states that he has made images of the sorcerers (salmu annȗti ša kaššapia u kaššaptia) and continues: qumi kaššapi u kaššapti, ‘burn my sorcerer and my witch.’65 In a damaged part of the Ras Shamra text reference is made to anointing kṯpm an equivalent of the Hebrew .66 4.3 Israel’s Context in the Old Testament From the presentation above, there seems to be ‘genetic’ relationship and obvious parallels between the term as used in the Old Testament and specifically in Israelite context, and her neighbouring cultural and linguistic context, especially Akkadian, Middle Assyrian and Ugaritic.67 This does not imply that they shared totally the same meaning. 68 God placed Israel in the midst of cultures saturated with divination, magic and sorcery. He desired that the Israelites come to him for revelation and insight. In the midst of uncertainty, they were to rely on his trustworthiness and provisions, not to attempt to manipulate their circumstances. Divination and magic were strongly condemned because they drew people away from God and dependence on him (Deut 18:9 – 22). The practices overlap in many important ways and have similarities with ‘prophecy and religion’, which makes it difficult to clearly distinguish between them. All involve accordance with the wordings of the tablet which you were made to swear to the king and his son that are sworn. 62 G André, ‘ – Kashaph,’ in Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, Volume VII, edited by G Johannes Botterweck, et al, and translated by David E. Green, Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1984, p. 360 – 370. 63 G. André, op. cit., 1984, p. 363. 64 ibid. The words in italics are mine to reflect the exact translation of the Akkadian expression cited. The concept, belief and practice is similar to what is happening among the Akwa Ibom people of South – South of Nigeria. This belief has resulted in child witchcraft accusations, stigmatization and abuses. Many prayer houses and prophet-exorcists are springing up claiming to deliver the afflicted and killing or destroying by “fire” the suspected and accused witches, especially children. 65 ibid.; Then the exorcist, an ašipu priest, pronounces a formula (šiptu), for example, as followsμ “Fire-god, O mighty one, exalted among the gods, who dost vanquish the wicked and the enemy, vanquish them (the witches) lest I be destroyed. Thou art my god, thou art my lord, thou art my judge, thou art my helper, thou art my avenger.” 66 ibid., 67 See G. André, op. cit., p. 363; André cites Y. Avishur, “The Ghost-Expelling Incantation from Ugarit (Ras Ibn Hani ικ/20),” UF, 13 (1λκ1), p. 13 – 25, especially, p. 22. 68 In spite of the “genetic” parallels we cannot establish that Israel practiced like some of her ancient neighbours. I am here cautious of what James Barr calls “illegitimate totality transfer,” that is, “over emphasis upon words to the detriment of context.” James Barr, The Semantics of Biblical Language, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1961, p. 218; see also Osborne. 12 interactions with supernatural beings or powers.69 God provided particular lawful means by which His will was revealed, such as by ‘Urim’ and ‘Thummim’ (Exod 28:30; Lev 8:8; Num 27:21), by ‘dreams’, by his chosen ‘prophets’ (Deut 18:15 - 22; cf. 1 Sam 28:6), and several other modes so that there was no excuse for resorting to the abominable practices of the nations around them. 5 The sense and referent of ‫כשפה‬ 5.1 The sense of ‫כשפה‬ From the analysis and comparison above what then is the ‘sense’ of ? The ‘sense’ of a term or word is the picture built in the mind by the term, that image which is connoted.70 It is not exactly clear how (or ) carried on her practice in Israel. However, references to the in Exodus 7:11 and Daniel 2:2 seem to give impression that in Egypt and Babylon they enjoyed the company of royalty and were very responsible and dependable part of the king’s entourage and were called upon in times of national crisis and situations requiring solution. We do not have any reference in the Old Testament that the or brought harm to any individual or property so as to warrant any form of exorcism. Therefore, from the presentation above on the overlapping of the meaning of the related terms it is obvious that involved a number of practices described by various names of which Deuteronomy 18:9 – 14 serves as the classic comprehensive reference.71 We may conclude that the ‘sense’ of is broad comprising magic and divination, and necromancy is at the root of the practice in Israel. Saul banished (comprising of feminine, and masculine) who practised , , , , and by way of (Deut 18:11; cf. 1 Sam 28:3ff)). 5.2 The referent of ‫ כשפה‬in the context of Exodus 22: 17 and in the Old Testament Here we consider the possible referent of the term in context of Exodus 22:17 and the Old Testament generally. It is not easy to establish the link between a symbol and its referent. The major point is to note the difference between the ‘sense’ of a word and its ‘referent’. Osborne notes that the reference is an extralinguistic factor, the specific object denoted by the statement.72 Exodus 22:17 reads: and has been variously translated.73 Exodus 22: 17 – 19 covers three specific sins deserving capital punishment namely: Sorcery (22:17); Bestiality (22:18); and Idolatry (22:19). These sins are related and have a common thread that makes them attract the capital punishment of death. This common thread is idolatry,74 a violation of 69 While the Bible prohibits divination and magic, some permitted practices share common features. On the other hand, approved practices such as prophecy, prayer or the laying on of hands are denounced when practiced with a magical mind-set. For these reasons, descriptions of the methods involved are not enough; one must also consider the beliefs motivating the practices and the practitioner’s worldview. 70 Osborne, op. cit., 1991, p. 77. 71 James Freeman thinks that and the other abominations mentioned in Deuteronomy 18:9 – 14 are different forms of divination referred to by the term which he takes as a generic term in the same text, see James Freeman op. cit., p. 174. 72 Osborne, op. cit., p. 1991, p. 77. 73 The grammar and syntax of this verse is treated in another up-coming paper because of the limitation set for the presentation of this paper. Translations that render as ‘sorceress’ or ‘a woman practicing magic’ are preferable to those that use the word ‘witch’ because of the very negative connotation attached to the word ‘witch’. However, whether outright death penalty is meant in the text or banishment or the prohibition of necromancy is an issue considered in the grammar and syntax. 74 Idolatry is a word whose meaning can be so widely applied to virtually every act of sin: e.g. disobedience, covetousness, sexual immorality and deviance, divination, sorcery, hatred, pride, rebellion, arrogance, 13 the very first commandment (cf. Exod 20:1 – 4). Abel Ndjerareou in his contribution in Africa Bible Commentary states thus: The common thread linking the sins that deserve the death penalty is a failure to worship, honour and serve God alone. The sorcerer invokes evil powers, the one who practices bestiality denies God’s perfect plan to meet our sexual needs, and the one who sacrifices to idols denies God his honour as the only object of worship. God takes all these sins seriously.75 Osborn and Hatton are right to note that refers to the one who performs supernatural deeds or discovers hidden knowledge by calling on the power of evil spirits and that it could also be rendered as ‘a woman who practices black magic against others’ or ‘a woman who causes (or, call down) curses to come upon people’ or ‘a woman who mutter curses.’76 While this could be a possible ‘referent’ it is not the ‘sense’ in which the term is used. This understanding does not reflect the general practice in the Old Testament.77 Some receptor language will have very specific terms for such womenν for example, ‘women who mutter curses,’ and so on. The implication is that, once a woman is discovered to have the ability, she is to be killed. Durham notes that the sorceress is not to be permitted to live because her craft was an attempt to escape or to alter the will and the work of Yahweh.78 Cassuto states that what was condemned among the other nations in their law codes was the practice of ‘black’ magic (whereby the sorcerer seeks to harm another person) and false witness against an accused practitioner. He comments thus: It is true that ‘black’ magic, whereby the sorcerer seeks to harm another person, is, of course, forbidden, even among gentiles, and in the Eastern law-codes the death penalty is ordained for one who practices it and for one who falsely charges his neighbour with this practice (Hammurabi Code, §2; Middle Assyrian Laws, §47), but in Israel no distinction was made between permitted and prohibited magic.79 Israel made no distinction about magical practice whether used for good or evil. Every form of magic and sorcery was out-rightly prohibited. Cassuto puts it thus: Every magical act, even for the purpose that is not evil, is forbidden, since it constitutes an attempt to prevail over the will of God, who alone has dominion over the world. Thus it is not without reason that in Israel the concepts of magic and idolatry were identified.80 insubordination, stubbornness, presumption, falsehood, deception, hypocrisy, fear, infidelity, injustice, oppression, corruption, etc. cf. 1 Samuel 15:23; Romans 1:18 – 32; Colossians 3:5 – 9. 75 Abel σdjerareou, “Exodus” in Africa Bible Commentary, (Adeyemo, Tokumbo, Gen. ed.), Nairobi: Zondervan WordAlive Publishers, 2006, p. 117. 76 Noel D. Osborn & Howard A. Hatton, A Handbook on Exodus, New York: United Bible Societies, 1999, p. 531. 77 There are no clear cases of the practice of black magic or muttering of curses by anyone in the form of occultism against anyone in the Old Testament, except for the case of Balaam who was called upon by Balak to pronounce curses upon Israel (Num 22:4 – 7). This is reading too much into the concept behind the actual practice in Israel. This is a transfer of meaning from one receptor context to another. In this case, probably, the sense is taken from the Latin maleficos and sixteenth and seventeenth century concept of “witch”. 78 Durham, Exodus: Word Biblical Commentary, Volume 3, p. 327. 79 Cassuto, Umberto, A Commentary on the Books of Exodus, translated from the Hebrew by Israel Abrahams, Jerusalem: The Magnes Press, The Hebrew University, 1967, p. 290. 80 Cassuto, Ibid.,1967, p. 290. 14 Following τgden and Richards’s triangle81 we could represent the semantic ‘sense’ and ‘referent’ of the term as follows: Sense: (magician, diviner, idolater, necromancer) Symbol: ( ) Referent: (sorceress, a woman who practices any kind of magic) The social implication in the practice of necromancy, magic (any kind, even for the fun of it), divination or sorcery is that of negatively influencing members of the covenant community from trusting Yahweh no matter the circumstances they found themselves.82 It was diverting their attention to something else other than Yahweh and thus causing them to put their trust in those things for help and security. This kind of social influence is only significant as individual Israelites as well as the community had the responsibility of maintaining the purity and corporate holiness of the community.83 The social implications of translating ‫ כשפה‬by the Latin maleficos and English word ‘witch’84 A witch in popular imagination is regarded as a person who flouts the usual moral and social conventions of the society, exhibiting enormous greed and an insatiable sexual appetite. The ‘nightmare’ vision of the witch is of someone who assumes the form of animals at will, flies through the night sky, feast on corpses, and gathers with other witches and demons to dance naked in isolated places.85 6 The translation of the Scriptures into Latin86 may have had a decisive influence on the eventual interpretation of Exodus 22:17. This, in particular, centres on the insertion into the text of the word maleficos and its associated terms which, by the time of the Reformation, came to imply all kinds of depraved and abominable practices.87 81 Moises Silva, op. cit., 1983, p. 103; taken from Ogden and Richards (1923:11; cited also by Osborne, 1991, p. 77). 82 Ahaz is a significant reference point here – Isaiah 7ff. 83 Like Achan (Josh ι), one man’s sin could affect the entire community. From Aaron’s golden calves to Solomon’s romance with foreign deities and practices, and from Jeroboam’s golden calves to Jezebel’s sorcery, all are condemned as abominations before Yahweh (cf. Exod 20: 1 – 4; Deut 18:9 – 14; 1 Kgs 17:15 – 22). 84 According to the New Encyclopedia Britannica, (15th edition), ‘witch’ is ‘one who practices witchcraft, sometimes distinguished from a sorcerer in that a witch’s evil stems from a mystical, unseen power or compulsion. In modern usage, a witch can be either male or female; a male witch is also called a warlock.’ New Encyclopedia Britannica, (15th edition), p. 716. 85 Ibid. p. 716; The witch is commonly represented as an ugly old woman, though beautiful girls (and men) were burned as witches during the 16th and 17th century European witch hunts and in recent years many little boys and girls have been accused, stigmatized, abused and even killed in Akwa Ibom State of Nigeria. The killing of children accused of witchcraft in Akwa Ibom State came to lime light between 2007 and 2008 when CNN and BBC made a Documentary of ‘child witch hunt’ in Nigeria with Akwa Ibom State as the major focus. 86 Maleficos non patieris vivere. 87 Bretherton, op. cit., p. 147. 15 A maleficus was simply an 'evil-doer' and the verb meant 'to harm', 'to practise mischief, unlike the Greek translation that rendered a more appropriate meaning by the word φα α ου ‘one who uses drugs either for sorcery or magic practices.’88 The Greek translation does not seem to take into consideration the apparent gender bias in the Hebrew but it also disregards the singular form of the Hebrew rendering and gives its translation a plural rendering. This translation appears to use the word φα α ου as a generic term like ἄ ωπο to refer to both the male and female practitioners since it does not seem to have the feminine form for practitioners of such craft. Douay-Rheims Bible translates ‘wizards’ likely following the Septuagint translation. The Wycliffe translation uses the anthropological term ‘witch’89 to represent both male and female but pluralises the word following the LXX as against the singular in the Hebrew text – ‘Thou shalt not suffer witches to live.’ (WYC) Bretherton warns that the term maleficos used in the Latin text, should not be translated 'sorcerer' or 'witch', unless remotely by implication, as it is not generally part of Classical usage.90 It would seem, therefore, that the term was usurped, or extended in Biblical Latin to cover the worst forms of wickedness related to magic and sorcery. Likewise, maleficium, which formerly had meant any kind of crime now came, in Ecclesiastical circles, to denote witchcraft in particular. According to Jeffrey Burton Russell, 'Malevolent magic was subsumed under the term maleficium. It represented the damage achieved by the witch, through occult means, in the service of Satan’.91 Robert J. Priest notes that the term ‘witch’, as used by anthropologists ‘applies to either a male or female human being who is said to be the cause of another’s misfortune, sickness, and/or death by means of psychic or other occult power.’92 As for the term ‘sorcerer or sorceress’ as used in ethnographic writings, the meaning is virtually the same, only that ‘sorcery generally also implies that the harm is caused through learned and acquired, selfconsciously exercised powers, which is not necessarily true of witch.’93 This use echoed the Latin translations of the Old Testament94 and implied the same perversions. Consequently, the translators of the Scriptures had to hand a set of associated terms which already carried malevolent undertones; and which the Latin had come to identify with the vilest kinds of sorcery. It was consequently effortless to link witchcraft, in popular thought, with the worship of the Devil. Thus maleficos, with the further Latin injunction, non patieris vivere, 'not suffer to live' most inevitably led to the assumption that it meant all convicted witches should be destroyed. As a 88 Cleon L. Rogers Jr., & Cleon L. Rogers III, The New Linguistic and Exegetical Key to the Greek New Testament, (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1998), p. 431, 649 89 While the word “witch” is an anthropological term (see Robert J. Priest, Missiology and the Witch an Article presented at the American Society of εissiology, Techny Towers, 11, June 1λ, 2010), the word “sorcerer” or “sorceress” is a term used in ethnographic writings to mean virtually the same thing, only that the word “sorcerer” or “sorceress” expresses that the practitioner acquires the skill through learning. 90 Bretherton, p. 147. 91 Jeffrey Burton Russell, Witchcraft in the Middle Ages (London: Cornell University Press, 1972), p. 13. 92 Robert J. Priest, Missiology and the Witch, an Article presented at the American Society of Missiology, (Techny Towers, 11, June 19, 2010). 93 Priest, Missiology and the Witch, June, 19, 2010. 94 " Deuteronomy 18:10 maleficus; 2 Chronicles 33:6 malefids; Jeremiah 27:9 maleficos; Micah 5:12 maleficia; Nahum 3:4 maleficia and maleficiis; Isaiah 47:9, 12 maleficiorum; Exodus 7:11 maleficos; Daniel 2:2 malefici; etc. 16 consequence, 'All over Europe ordinary people were eager to denounce their female neighbours as witches in the belief that they caused maleficium.’95 The implication here becomes a sociological one as the understanding of the word shifts from one who engages in a craft of divining to know the future or mystery through the aid of (familiar) spirits or spirits of the dead (ancestors) or mastery of nature and manipulation of same for the purpose of influencing the future to working of evil against one’s neighbour or family members. This understanding betrays the contextual relationship of Exodus 22:17-19 which out-rightly condemns idolatry and prescribes capital punishment.96 Thus English translations that render as ‘witch’ following the Latin, and the receptor translations that follow this understanding are guilty of what James Barr calls ‘illegitimate totality transfer,’ that is, ‘over emphasis upon words to the detriment of context.’97 In view of the implications stated above of the possible understanding of the text of Exodus 22:17, it does suggest that adept practitioners were capable of such knowledge or magical powers (cf. Exod 7:11; Dan 2:2ff.). There is no indication that children in the ancient Near East or in Israel were capable of divining, enchantment, fortune-telling, soothsaying. It was a craft for the adepts and matured who had to undergo intensive learning and practicum (cf. Moses in Egypt – Exod 7ff. cf. Acts 7:22; Daniel in Babylon – Dan 1 – 2) 7 Conclusion Even while risking oversimplification, concise definitions of the practices of divination and magic are useful. Divination attempts to gain supernatural knowledge, usually either to understand why something has occurred or to predict the future. Magic attempts to use supernatural powers to influence people, events or other supernatural beings. Biblically approved practices emphasize divine initiative and divine prerogative. Magic and divination are human efforts to understand, control or manipulate the divine realm by methods believed to practically guarantee the desired results. These tend to be the satisfaction of immediate human needs, such as healing, protection, sustenance or knowledge.98 Seeking to know the future and to influence it outside the will of God was and remains a blatant sin against him and a violation of his law. This is what the prophets cried out against and the redactor seems to use in Exodus 22: 17 as a representational term to give it a legislative backing under Mosaic authority and within the context of the theophany and enactment of the common-wealth of Yahweh’s covenant community. The institution of the 95 The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, ed. F. L. Cross and E. A. Livingstone (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), p. 1757; In Akwa Ibom State, the female sex is the most hunted and accused this practice. 96 The antisocial dimension in the understanding of may be due to a comparison of the list of abominable practices listed in Deuteronomy which are an expanded or expository version of - the list of terms for practitioners of various forms of magic which is an attempt to secure information from the beyond or to bring supernatural influence to bear on situations or persons by other than the regular means of religion. All such practices are recognized as antisocial and punishable by death (cf. Lev 20:6, 27); See, Layman, op. cit., (1989), p. 58; Walter Elwell places Exodus 22:18 within the text of 22:16 – 31 which he says are primarily related to social responsibilities. In the midst of this section of social laws is a segment that is concerned with pagan practices, all of which are capital offenses. Elwell says that sorcery is an offense not to be tolerated and refers to Deuteronomy of 18:9 – 14 as containing an expanded list of such offenses Walter A. Elwell, (ed.), Evangelical Commentary on the Bible, Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Book House, 1996, p. 56. 97 James Barr, op. cit., 1961, p. 218. 98 T. Desmond Alexander, & David W. Baker, ‘Divination, Magic’ in Dictionary of the Old Testament Pentateuch, Downers Grove, Illinois, Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 2003, p. 193. 17 office of the prophet within the context of Deuteronomy 18:9 – 22 gives more insight to this understanding. More so, the term is rendered in the feminine probably because women were the most vulnerable even though men were also practitioners.99 The feminine form is not gender vendetta or bias but representational as well as the masculine reference in Deuteronomy 18:10. The participial form could be translated in a way that would not reflect gender bias: For example, ‘anyone who practices magic ...’ or ‘a magician …’ or ‘anyone who practices idolatrous acts …’ etc.100 Thus reflects the bad influence on the covenant community as well as wilful violation of the first Commandment which prohibits idolatry. The sin of ‘the practice of necromancy, divination and magic’ tantamount to idolatry – a deliberate sin against Yahweh, his Laws and his holy people - thus warranting banishment or death penalty, as the case may be.101 Bibliography Adeyemo, Tokumbo, (Gen. Ed.), Africa Bible Commentary, (Nairobi: Publishers, 2006) Zondervan WordAlive Matthew Poole, A Commentary on the Holy Bible, Volume 1 – Genesis to Job, Edinburgh: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1979, p. 166; Childs, op. cit., p. 477 – 478; Noth, op. cit., 1962, p. 185; Paul E. Kretzmann,., Popular Commentary of the Bible, The Old Testament Volume 1: The Historical Books of the Old Testament: Genesis to Esther, St Louis, Mo; Concordia Publishing House, 1λ23, p. 1η2μ ‘The sorceress is merely named because women were more addicted to the practice than men.’; Keil and Delitzsch, Commentary on the Old Testament: New Updated Edition, Electronic Database Copyright © 1996 by Hendrickson Publishers, Inc. All rights reserved. 100 cf. Isaiah 64:6 where God refers to human righteousness, literally, as a woman’s ‘menstrual garment’ but most translations translate ‘filthy garment’. 101 This point is very clear in Deuteronomy 20:16 – 18: 16 In those towns that the Lord your God is giving you as a special possession, destroy every living thing. 17 You must completely destroy the Hittites, Amorites, Canaanites, Perizzites, Hivites, and Jebusites, just as the Lord your God has commanded you. 18 This will prevent the people of the land from teaching you to imitate their detestable customs in the worship of their gods, which would cause you to sin deeply against the Lord your God. Holy Bible, New Living Translation ®, copyright © 1996, 2004 by Tyndale Charitable Trust - (Used by permission of Tyndale House Publishers. All rights reserved.). 99 18 Alec Motyer, The Message of Exodus: The Bible Speaks Today, (Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 2005) Alexander, T. Desmond, & Baker, David W., “Divination, εagic” in Dictionary of the Old Testament Pentateuch, (Downers Grove, Illinois, Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 2003) Alston, William P., “Semantic Rules” in Semantics and Philosophy, ed. Milton K. Munitz Peter K. Unger, (New York: New York University Press) and Alt, Albrecht, Essays on Old Testament History and Religion, translated by R. A. Wilson, (Sheffield: JOST Press, an imprint of Sheffield Academic Press Ltd, 1989) Alt, Albrecht, Essays on Old Testament History and Religion translated by R. A. Wilson, (Oxford: 1966) André, G., ‘ – kashaph,’ in Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, Volume VII, edited by G Johannes Botterweck, et al and translated by David E. Green, (Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1984) Anthony Phillips, Ancient Israel's Criminal Law (London: Basil Blackwell, 1970) Armstrong, Terry A., Busby, Douglas L. and Carr, Cyril E., A Reader’s Hebrew – English Lexicon of the Old Testament, (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1989) Badmead, Julye, “εedium, Wizard” in Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible, edited by David Noel Freedman, (William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company: Grand Rapids, Michigan, Cambridge, 2000) Barr, James, The Semantics of Biblical Language, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1961) Bartor, Assnat. "The representation of speech in the casuistic laws of the Pentateuch: the phenomenon of combined discourse." Journal of Biblical Literature 126, no. 2 (June 1, 2007): 231-249. Beall, Todd S., William A. Banks, Colin Smith, Old Testament Parsing Guide (Revised and Updated Edition), (Nashville, Tennessee: B&H Academic, 2000) Bible Knowledge Commentary/Old Testament Copyright © 1983, 2000 Cook Ministries; (All rights reserved.) Communications Brandon, S G F., "Magic and the black art" Modern Churchman 11, no. 2 (January 1, 1968): 84. Bretherton, Donald J. "An invitation to murder? A re-interpretation of Exodus 22:18 'you shall suffer a witch to live'." Expository Times 116, no. 5 (February 1, 2005): 145152. 73- not Brotzman, Ellis R., Old Testament Textual Criticism: A Practical Introduction, (Baker Books: Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1994) Brown, Francis, Driver, S. R., and Briggs, Charles A., The New Brown – Driver – Briggs – Hebrew and English Lexicon of the OT (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996) 19 Bruce K. Waltke, “The Textual Criticism of the τld Testament” in The Expositor’s Bible Commentary (edited by Frank E. Gaebalein), 1979 Cassuto, Umberto, A Commentary on the Books of Exodus, translated from the Hebrew by Israel Abrahams, Jerusalem: The Magnes Press, The Hebrew University, 1967 "Challenges to the injustice of the criminal justice system," Church & Society 70, no. 4 1980): 39-44. (March 1, Childs, Brevard S., The Book of Exodus: A Critical, Theological Commentary: Old Testament Library, (Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1974) Davidson, A. B. An Introductory Hebrew Grammar, (σew Yorkμ Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1954) Durham, John I., Exodus: Word Biblical Commentary, Volume 1, (Waco, Texas: Word Publishers, 1987) Books Durham, John I., Exodus: Word Biblical Commentary, Volume 3, (Waco, Texas: Word Publishers, 1987) Books Eichrodt, Walther, Theology of the Old Testament, Volume One, Old Testament Library, translated by J. A. Baker, (Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1961) Elwell, Walter A., (ed.), Evangelical Commentary on the Bible, (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Book House, 1996) Eugene A. Nida, Signs, Sense and Translation, (Pretoria, South Africa: Pretoria University, 1972) Feyerabend, Karl, Langenscheidt’s Pocket Greek Dictionary (Classical Greek – English), Berlin and Munich: Langenscheidt KG, (no date) Feyerabend, Karl, Langenscheidt Pocket Hebrew Dictionary (Hebrew – English), (Germany: Langenscheidt (no date)) Francisco, Clyde T., "Expository themes in the book of Exodus," Review & Expositor 74, no. (September 1, 1977) 4 Freeman, James M., The New Manners and Customs of the Bible (rewritten and updated by Harold Chadwick, Alachua, Florida: Bridge-Logos, 1998) Fretheim, Terence E. "God and violence in the Old Testament," Word & World 24, no. 1 (December 1, 2004): 18-28. George Mendenhall, The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the Biblical Tradition (Baltimore London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973) and Gesenius Hebrew and English Lexicon (with an appendix containing the Biblical Aramaic), (Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1979) 20 Gesenius’ Hebrew Grammar, (edited and enlarged by E. Kautzsch, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, second edition 1910, reprinted from corrected sheets of the second edition, fifteenth impression, 1980) Gibson, J. C., Review of Albrecht Alt, and R. A. Wilson 'Essays on Old Testament History and Religion' in Scottish Journal of Theology, 22, (1969). pp. 108-110. doi: 10.1017/S0036930600012242 Gorg Fohrer, Hebrew & Aramaic Dictionary of the OT (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1973) Gowan, Donald E., Theology in Exodus: Biblical Theology in Form of a Commentary, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press, 1994), p. x – xi; 178 – 183) (Louisville, Groff, Warren F. "Sixth Commandment: its significance for the Christian as citizen and for statesman." Brethren Life And Thought 6, no. 1 (December 1, 1961) the Hallo, William W., et al., (eds), “εiddle Assyrian δaw Code ζι”μ The Context of Scripture: Monumental Inscriptions from the Biblical World, (B Leiden: Brill, 2002) Hanson, Paul D. "Masculine metaphors for God and sex-discrimination in the Old Ecumenical Review 27, no. 4 (October 1, 1975): 316-324. Testament." Harrisville, Roy A. "The woman of Canaan: a chapter in the history of exegesis." Interpretation no. 3 (July 1, 1966): 274-287 20, Hoffner, Harry A, Jr. "Some contributions of Hittitology to Old Testament study." Tyndale Bulletin 20, (January 1, 1969): 27-55. Hyatt, J. Philip. Exodus: The New Century Bible Commentary, (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Publishing Co., 1971) Eerdmans Jeffrey Burton Russell, Witchcraft in the Middle Ages (London: Cornell University Press, 1972) Keil and Delitzsch Commentary on the Old Testament: (New Updated Edition, Electronic Database copyright © 1996 by Hendrickson Publishers, Inc. All rights reserved) Kelly, Page H., Biblical Hebrew, An Introductory Grammar, (Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1992) Kitchen, Kenneth A., "Historical method and early Hebrew tradition" Tyndale Bulletin 17, (January 1, 1966): 63-97 Knierim, Rolf. "Role of the sexes in the Old Testament" Lexington Theological Quarterly 10, 4 (October 1, 1975): 1-10 no. Kretzmann, Paul E., Popular Commentary of the Bible, The Old Testament Volume 1: The Historical Books of the Old Testament: Genesis to Esther, (St Louis, Mo; Concordia Publishing House, 1923) Layman, Charles M., (ed.) The Interpreter’s One Volume Commentary on the Bible: Introduction and Commentary for Each Book of the Bible Including the Apocrypha – with General Articles, (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1989) 21 Levenson, Jon D., The Hebrew Bible, The Old Testament, and Historical Criticism: Jews and Christians in Biblical Studies, (Westminster/John Knox Press, Louisville, Kentucky, 1999) δewis, Theodore J., “Ancestor Worship” in The Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary Volume 1, A – C, (edited by David Noel Freedman etal, New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 2008) Longman, Tremper, III, Literary Approaches to Biblical Interpretation: Foundations of Contemporary Interpretation, Volume 3, (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Academie Books, Zondervan Publishing House, Leicester, England: Apollos, 1987) Louw, Johannes P. 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David Freedman, et al, (New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 2008) Napier, Bunyan Davie, "Community under law: on Hebrew law and its theological presuppositions," Interpretation 7, no. 4 (October 1, 1953): 404-417. σdjerareou, Abel, “Exodus” in Africa Bible Commentary, (Tokumbo Adeyemo, Gen. ed.), (Nairobi: Zondervan WordAlive Publishers, 2006) Noth, Martin, “Exodus, A Commentary”: Westminster Press, 1962) Old Testament Library, (Philadelphia: The Osborn, Noel D., & Hatton, Howard A., A Handbook on Exodus, (New York: United Bible Societies, 1999) Osborne, Grant, The Hermeneutical Spiral: A Comprehensive Introduction to Biblical Interpretation, (Downers Grove, Illinois: Inter Varsity Press, 1991) Patrick, Dale. "Casuistic law governing primary rights and duties," Journal Of Biblical 92, no. 2 (June 1, 1973): 180-184 Literature Pfeiffer, Charles F. and Harrison, Everett F. (ed.), The Wycliffe Bible Commentary (Complete and Unabridged Edition), (Chicago: Moody Press, 1983) Pigott, Susan M. "Wives, witches and wise women: prophetic heralds of kingship in 1 and 2 Samuel." Review & Expositor 99, no. 2 (March 1, 2002): 145-173. 22 Poole, Matthew, A Commentary on the Holy Bible, Volume 1 – Genesis to Job, (Edinburgh: Banner of Truth Trust, 1979) The Priest, Robert J., Missiology and the Witch an Article presented at the American Society of Missiology, (Techny Towers, 11, June 19, 2010) Pritchard, James B., (ed.), Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, (Translated by Theophile J. Meek), (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1955) Rabinowitz, Jacob J. "Exodus 22 and the Septuagint version thereof," Vetus Testamentum 9, 1 (January 1, 1959): 40-46. no. Rad, G. von, Deuteronomy, OTL (English translation,), (Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1966) Richardson, M. E. J., Hammurabi’s Laws: Text, Translation and Glossary, (London, New York: T & T Clark International, 2004) Sarna, σahum ε., “Exodus, Book of” in The Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary Volume 1, A – C, (edited by David Noel Freedman etal, New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 2008), Sefati, Yitschak, and Jacob Klein, "The law of the sorceress (Exodus 22:17[18]) in the light of biblical and Mesopotamian parallels" in Sefer Moshe, 171-190 (Winona Lake, Ind: Eisenbrauns, 2004) Sparks, Kent. "A Comparative Study of the Biblical NBLH Laws" Zeitschrift Für Die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 110, no. 4 (January 1, 1998): 594-600. Spence, H. D. M., & Exell, Joseph S., (eds.), The Pulpit Commentary Volume 1 Genesis – Exodus, (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1950) Strong's Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible, (London: Pickering & Inglis, 1980) Tate, Marvin E. "Legal traditions of the books of Exodus." Review & Expositor 74, no. 4 (September 1, 1977): 483-510. Tenney, Merrill C., (Gen. Ed.), Handy Dictionary of the Bible, (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1967) Terry A. Armstrong, Douglas L. Busby, and Cyril F. Carr, A Reader’s Hebrew – English Lexicon of the Old Testament (Four Volumes in One), (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Regency Reference Library Zondervan Publishing House, 1989) The New Jerome Biblical Commentary, (eds. Raymond E. Brown, etal), (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1990) Thomas, D. Winton, (ed.) Documents From Old Testament Times, (translated with Introductions and Notes by members of the Society for Old Testament Study), (London, Edinburgh, Paris, Melbourne, Johannesburg, Toronto, New York: Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd., 1958) 23 Thornton, Timothy C G. "The destruction of idols: sinful or meritorious?" Journal Of Studies 37, no. 1 (April 1, 1986): 121-129. Theological Zuck, Roy B. "Practice of witchcraft in the Scriptures." Bibliotheca Sacra 128, no. 512 1971): 352-360. 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