Plants are multicellular eukaryotes. Nearly all are photosynthetic, and most are terrestrial (some are secondarily aquatic). Plants contain a variety of cell types that are specialized to perform different functions: the aerial parts generally have a waxy cuticle to prevent water loss, but the roots don’t so they can absorb water. The photosynthetic pigments include chlorophylls A and B plus various carotenoids. Plant cells have cell walls which are made of cellulose. Plants grow by mitosis, and reproduce by meiosis (which produces spores) and alternation of generations with special adaptations of the gametes and embryos to survive in a non-aquatic environment. The gametes are produced in gametangia. The male gametangium is called an antheridium (anthe = flower), while the female gametangium is an archegonium (arche = first, beginning; goni = seed). The eggs are fertilized within the female archegonium to reduce desiccation, and often stay within the archegonium to continue their development. In all plant groups except Division Bryophyta, the 2n sporophyte is the dominant generation.
The mosses, ferns and their allies are among the most primitive of plants, having relatives from the coal age. Like other plants, they are adapted to an environment where they are not totally surrounded by water, but most must live in very humid environments which are especially necessary for transfer of sperm in these groups. The sex organs of these plants are multicellular. The zygote (2n generation) is retained within the female sex organ of many of the mosses but is free-living in the ferns and their allies. The dominant generation in the mosses is usually the gametophyte, and in the ferns is the sporophyte. Alternation of generations in these groups is often quite complex.
The various Divisions (remember botanists use Division = Phylum) of
plants are classified based on presence/absence of a vascular system and/or
seeds. If seeds are present, the location of the seeds (whether on the
surface of a reproductive structure or within some type of ovary) becomes
significant.
The mosses and their allies lack true roots, stems, and leaves as such because they do not contain vascular bundles (veins). Many of them, however, do have rhizoids (rhizo = root; -oid = like, form) — root-like non-roots, as well as stemlike and leaflike structures. The ferns, like other more familiar plants, have true vascular bundles of xylem (xylo = wood; phloeo = the bark of a tree) and phloem for transport of water and nutrients. The fern allies have stems, but rootlike and leaflike structures vary with the group.
In the vascular plants, soil minerals and water are absorbed by the roots (which also anchor the plant and have no cuticle so water can be absorbed). Air, light, and CO2 are absorbed by the leaves, while the O2 “waste” from photosynthesis is released from the leaves. The stem functions in the support of the plant, and its vascular system transports water and nutrients. The diploid sporophyte is the dominant generation. Some gametophytes are monoecious and some are dioecious. “Monoecious” means that the male and female reproductive organs are in/on the same individual plant, while “dioecious” refers to having separate male and female plants. The vascular system (transportation system) is composed of xylem (xylo = wood) which transports water and nutrients up from the roots and must be dead to function (this consists of hollow tubes where cells have died) and phloem (phloeo = the bark of a tree), which distribute sugars around the plant and consists of live cells. In general, in the vascular bundles in the stems, xylem is found “inside” the bundle, surrounded by phloem, and in leaves, xylem is found on “top” of the bundles with phloem underneath.
In the Middle Ages times in Europe, the herbalists treated various diseases and disorders with herbs. One idea that was used in deciding which herb served what purpose was the Doctrine of Signatures. Medieval herbalists believed that God purposely made certain plants look like certain body organs (at least in the eyes of the Medieval herbalists) as a sign that those plants were meant for treating those organs. Hence, we have plants with names like liverwort, spleenwort, etc. (wort is an Anglo-Saxon or Celtic word which means plant, root, or herb). We now know that most of these plants don’t appear to help the organs after which they’re named, and some are even too toxic to safely consume. “Wort” was also used in other plant names. For example, St. Johnswort blooms (at least in Europe) around 24 June, when the Catholics celebrate the festival of the Nativity of St. John the Baptist, Pewterwort is another name for Scouring Rush because of its use in cleaning pewter, and a sudsing juice can be extracted from Soapwort.
Examine, take notes on, and/or draw the various material indicated below as available and as time allows.
(bryo = moss; phyto = plant) These are terrestrial, but live in very damp, shady places. They have no vascular system so must directly absorb water from the soil.
Live Marchantia Thallus
(hepat = liver; wort = herb, plant)
While closely related to the mosses, liverworts look quite different.
Like mosses, the dominant generation is the haploid (1n) gametophyte
generation. The body
(thallus — thall = twig, young shoot) of a liverwort is flat
and ribbon-like (approximately 1 cm wide) with a “midrib”. Because they also
have no vascular system to distribute water, they
must remain small and be in almost direct contact with moist soil. One
commonly-occurring genus of liverwort is Marchantia.
Microscopic View of Marchantia Thallus
The liverworts have a ribbon-like body (thallus - thall = twig,
young shoot) with a midrib.
Examine (and draw and label) live Marchantia. Look for gemmae cups, male antheridial heads, and female archegonial heads (all described below).
Male and Female Reproductive Structures
Male and Female Reproductive Structures
The male gametophytes produce antheridial heads that look sort-of like
umbrellas. Each antheridial head contains several antheridia full of sperm.
The female gametophytes produce archegonial heads that look like clusters
of “fingers.” Several archegonia, each containing one egg, are located on
the underside of each finger. When it rains, the antheridia release sperm.
Raindrops then splash the sperm onto the archegonial head, where they swim
to and into an archegonium, then fertilize that egg. Again, the zygote
remains within the archegonium, and grows into an inconspicuous, small,
round, 2n sporophyte. Meiosis occurs within the sporophyte, resulting in
1n spores which are then released and grow into the next gametophyte
generation. This photo shows several male and female reproductive structures.
Note that one version is labeled so you know which is which, and the other
version is “plain” so you can see those structures more easily.
Marchantia Antheridial Head
Marchantia Antheridia with Sperm
Sperm are produced within antheridia on the male gametophyte’s antheridial
head.
Examine (and draw and label) a prepared slide of the male antheridial head (Carolina #B323b).
Marchantia Archegonial Head
Marchantia Archegonia with Eggs
Eggs are produced within archegonia on the female gametophyte’s archegonial
head.
Examine (and draw and label) a prepared slide of the female archegonial head (Carolina #B325).
When the sperm fertilizes the egg, the result is a zygote (zygo = yoke). After growing into a multicellular sporophyte within the female plant, many of these cells undergo meiosis to form haploid (haplo = half) spores, the start of a new generation of gametophytes.
Examine the plastic mount containing male and female gametophytes and a female gametophyte that contains 2n sporophytes.
Marchantia with Gemmae Cups
In addition to the “usual” sexual reproduction, liverworts also reproduce
asexually by means of small, cup-like structures called gemma cups
(gemma = a bud) which occur periodically on the thallus and
contain small pieces of liverwort called
gemmae (sing. = gemma).
When it rains, the gemmae are splashed out and can grow into new liverworts.
Microscopic View of Gemmae
Examine (and draw) the prepared slide of Marchantia gemmae.
Moss Life Cycle
(musc = moss)
These are terrestrial plants, but must live in very damp, shady places.
They have no vascular system so must directly absorb water from the soil.
Mosses have root-like rhizoids (rhizo = root; -oid =
like, form) and leaf-like structures, but these are not true roots/leaves
because they have no vascular system. The dominant generation in the life
cycle is the 1n gametophyte.
Moss Young “Leafy” Shoot
A germinating moss spore gives rise to an algalike
protonema (proto = first, original; nema = a thread)
which later develops rhizoids and “leafy” shoots. These moss gametophytes
produce antheridia (male sex organs — anthe = flower;
-idium = small) or archegonia (female sex organs —
arche/archeg = ancient, first, beginning; goni = seed) on the
tips of the “stems.”
Moss Antheridial Head
Moss Antheridia with Sperm
Moss Archegonial Head
Moss Archegonia with Eggs
Examine (and draw and label) prepared slides of moss male antheridial
heads and female archegonial heads.
Labeled Moss with Sporophytes
In wet weather, sperm are released from their antheridium, swim to an
archegonium, swim down the opening in the archegonium, and fertilize the egg.
The resulting 2n zygote remains within the archegonium for protection
from dessication, and grows by mitosis to form the new, 2n sporophyte
generation. The sporophyte never
leaves the archegonium, but grows upward from there, forming a stalk
and capsule on top of the “stem” of the gametophyte. Within the
capsule, certain cells undergo meiosis to form spores, the start of the new
gametophyte generation, and when the spores are mature and the weather is
right, the calyptra (the lid — calypt = covered, a cover) opens
and the spores are released. These spores grow via mitosis to turn into the
new, 1n gametophyte generation.
In this photo, there are two 1n female moss gametophytes, each with a 2n
sporophyte growing out of the top of it.
Moss with Sporophytes
In this photograph of clusters of moss plants, the low, “fuzzy” growth is
all the 1n gametophyte moss plants. The stalks sticking up with capsules on
top are all there is of the 2n sporophyte generation.
Examine any plastic mounts that are available.
If available, examine live moss to try to locate these structures.
(tracheo = the windpipe)
These plants all have a vascular system, comprised of xylem and phloem,
to transport water and nutrients.
Unlike what the Division common name might suggest, these are not mosses. This Division contains two main modern genera: Lycopodium (lyco = wolf, poda = foot) also known as ground pine or wolf’s claw (hence the genus name), which is the larger of the two, and Selaginella, which is smaller in size. Many tropical species in this Division are epiphytes (epi = upon, over), plants that use another plant as a substrate upon which to live but are not parasitic. Most of our local species have a rhizome, an underground, horizontal STEM from which the roots and branches arise. Their leaves, while tiny, are true leaves with a vascular system.
The Lycophyta bear single sporangia (sporo = seed; angio = vessel, box, case) in the axils (axil = armpit) of special leaves called sporophylls, usually near the tips of the branches. The sporophyte generation has a horizontal rhizome, branching aerial stem, and numerous small leaves. These leaves do have a vein in the center. In each sporangium, special cells undergo meiosis to form spores. These spores produce underground tuberous gametophytes, some of which are dependent on a certain fungus for their nutrition. For Lycopodium, Eastern Redcedar growing nearby also appears to be important to survival. Gametophytes produce eggs and sperm which unite to form the new sporophyte.
Running Ground Pine
Here is a photo of Running Ground Pine, Lycopodium flabelliforme.
This used to be quite common in certain areas on the Clermont campus, but
within recent years, has totally disappeared from all those locations.
This group is mentioned just because it fits in, here, but we will not be
examining them.
(spheno = a wedge)
The main genus in this Division is Equisetum (equis = horse;
setum = bristle).
The sporophyte consists of an underground rhizome from which roots and aerial
branches arise. Fertile “stems” do not branch but bear a cone at their
tips and a whorl of scalelike leaves at each joint on the stem. The
non-fertile “stems” of many species of horsetail have smaller branches at the
joints, resembling a horse’s tail while those of Scouring Rush resemble the
fertile branches. This is the sporophyte generation (which is dominant)
whose spores form in the cone. When these spores germinate, they form small
gametophytes (similar to those of the clubmosses) which eventually bear
antheridia and archegonia. When the sperm fertilizes the egg, the zygote
develops into a sporophyte again.
Field Horsetail
Field Horsetail
A local species called Field Horsetail (Equisetum arvense —
arvens = a field) shows the
branching pattern from which the genus gets its name.
Scouring Rush
Scouring Rush
Another local species called Scouring Rush (Equisetum hyemale —
hyemal = winter)
has whorls of small, brownish or grayish (dead) leaves at the joints instead
of branches, thus sort-of resembling rushes or bamboo.
Scouring Rush gets its species name (hyemale) because
it is evergreen, while Field Horsetail dies back to the ground in winter.
The epidermal cells
of this (and many other) species of Equisetum contain silica, thus
these plants have been crumpled up and used as potscrubbers, earning the
plant its common name of
“scouring rush.” Its strength is due to the presence of
significant amounts of silica in its stems.
If the top of the main stalk is damaged, Scouring Rush may
send out side branches similar to those normally produced by Field Horsetail.
Scouring Rush may occur in large stands in moist areas such as along stream
banks.
Scouring Rush
This group is mentioned just because it fits in, here, but we will not be
examining them. Hopefully, we will be able to view them during a subsequent
field hike.
(ptera, ptero = wing, feather; phyto = plant)
Fern Life Cycle
filic = a fern)
Ferns also exhibit alternation of generations, but for them, the 2n sporophyte
generation is the dominant generation, and the 1n gametophytes are
inconspicuous. The sporophyte plant consists of an underground, horizontal
rhizome from which arise the roots and leaves.
A frond is a mature fern leaf,
and these are often compound (divided into leaflets). A
fiddlehead or crozier is a tightly-coiled, developing “baby”
fern leaf. Fern leaves uncoil as they grow, thus initially resemble the
top of a violin above the pegs (fiddlehead) or a shepherd’s or bishop’s staff
(crozier). Most ferns have horizontal stems or rhizomes. Some ferns having
vertical stems are called tree ferns. Examples of some types of ferns
follow.
Mature Christmas Fern Frond
Young Christmas Fern Fiddleheads
Fragile Fern with Fiddleheads
A Tree Fern from California
Christmas Fern Sterile and Fertile Leaves
Fern sporophytes have two kinds of leaves: sterile and fertile. The sterile
leaves are “regular” leaves, primarily for photosynthesis. The fertile
leaves bear the spore-producing areas. In some types of ferns, the sterile
and fertile leaves look almost alike, except for the presence/absence of
the spore-producing areas, while in other types of ferns, the sterile and
fertile leaves look very different from each other.
Rattlesnake Fern Sterile and Fertile Leaves
Ebony Spleenwort Leaf
On the underside of the fertile leaves are numerous brown spots called
sori (singular = sorus — sorus = a heap). Alternatively, in
the Rattlesnake fern, shown above, the sori are the small, yellow balls
on the fertile leaf.
Examine (and draw and label) any live ferns (Pteris, Pteridium,
or other ferns) that are available.
Examine any plastic mounts that are available.
Alternately,
live ferns may be examined in a subsequent field hike.
Ebony Spleenwort Sori
Each sorus contains numerous sporangia in which the spores are
produced via meiosis.
Cross-Section of Fern Sori with Sporangia
A single sporangium consists of a stalk made of several
elongated cells, and a capsule. The “backbone” of the capsule is a ring of
cells called an annulus (annul = a ring), while the capsule
itself is made of thin-walled cells. Note that each of the cells in the
annulus has a thin outer wall and thick inner walls. In drier weather,
evaporation of water from the cells of the annulus causes them to dehydrate
somewhat. Thus, the annulus becomes straighter, causing the sides of the
capsule to tear open and spores to be released.
Fern Sporangia
Fern Sporangia with Spores Inside
Examine (and draw and label) the prepared slide of fern sporangia (Carolina #B431), or if live ferns with sori/sporangia are available, scrape some material from a sorus onto a microscope slide and add a drop of glycerol (rather than water) to make a wet mount. (Because glycerol also will pull water out of cells, it can serve to dehydrate them, thus causing the capsule to tear and spores to be released for examination.) Focus on and observe a single sporangium, noticing the stalk, capsule, spores, and annulus.
Fern Female Gametophyte
Fern Archegonia with Eggs
Fern Male Gametophyte
Fern Antheridia with Sperm
Each spore produced in the sporangium by meiosis is released
and grows into a small, heart-shaped gametophyte called
a prothallium (pro = before, in front of; thall = a young shoot,
twig) which produces either antheridia and sperm or archegonia and eggs.
Examine the prepared slide with male and female prothallia on it (Carolina
#B410). The
male is on the left — note the antheridia full of sperm. The female
is on the right — notice the archegonia, each of which contains one egg.
Fern Antheridia Releasing Sperm
Fern Sperm around Archegonia
The eggs produce a chemical to attract the sperm. Sperm swim to and fertilize the eggs.
Examine the prepared slide of fern fertilization (Carolina #B411). Notice the sperm being released from the antheridia, and notice the groups of sperm clustered around the archegonia/eggs.
Typically one 2n zygote per female gametophyte will develop
into a new sporophyte fern. The zygote remains within the archegonium, and
the new
sporophyte forms within the archegonium until it sends up its first leaf and
roots. Once the sporophyte is established, the gametophyte dies and decays.
Fern Sporophyte Growing from Gametophyte
(Photo of Slide)
Fern Sporophyte Growing from Gametophyte
(Microscopic View)
Examine the prepared slide of a prothallium with a young sporophyte growing
out of it (Carolina #B415). Notice the small, heart-shaped, 1n prothallium
and the larger, new, 2n fern growing out of it.
Note that the ancestors of these primitive plants were present back in “dinosaur times,” and the structures of the modern plants have changed little since then.
Make sure you have all of the following in your lab notebook: